Stateless Environmentalism
The Criticism of State by Eco-Anarchist Perspectives
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14288/acme.v20i2.1950Keywords:
Eco-anarchism, environmental state, environmentalism, bioregionalism, social ecology, anarcho-primitivismAbstract
The State and its governmental institutions have been dignified in the environmentalist mainstream as palliative forces to face and solve the excesses and failures of capitalism and neoliberalism towards a proper environmental management. But this environmental state falls into evident contradictions regards to its formal commitment with environmentalist purposes. In addition, governmental institutions contribute to expand a nihilist attitude in the environmentalist actions of the citizenship. Within the environmentalist strands of anarchism, the matter of State has focused a relevant attention and position. An early green criticism may be found in the nineteenth century anarchists, in which State has no room as a violent and centralized force, and corrupting the goodness of the material, reproductive and spiritual connection of humans with Nature. Most recent eco-anarchist approaches, such as social ecologists, bioregionalists and anarcho-primitivists have analysed how determinant is State as a responsible agent in the global environmental crisis and proposed alternatives to this coercive power. This paper is aiming a) to examine some of the main contributions of the “green” criticism to State from eco-anarchists; and b) to build a consistent and wide critique of the State, helping to promote a non-statist balanced and fair relationship between societies and Nature.
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Grajales, Jacobo. 2013. State Involvement, Land Grabbing and Counter-Insurgency in Colombia. Development and Change, 44, 2, 211–232.
Hall, Matthew. 2011. Beyond the Human: Extending Ecological Anarchism. Environmental Politics, 20, 374-390.
Hatzisavvidou, Sophia. 2019. Inventing the environmental state: neoliberal common sense and the limits to transformation. Environmental Politics, https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2019.1684732.
Hausknost, Daniel. 2020. The environmental state and the glass ceiling of transformation. Environmental Politics, 29, 1, 17-37.
Heckert, Jamie. 2010. Anarchist roots & routes. European Journal of Ecopsychology, 1, 19-36.
Huh, Taewook, Yunyoung Kim and Jiyoung Hailiey Kim. 2018. Towards a Green state: a comparative study on OECD countries through fuzzy-set analysis. Sustainability, 10, 3181, https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093181.
Ince, Anthony and Gerónimo Barrera de la Torre. 2016. For post-statist geographies. Political Geography, 55, 10-19.
Jakobsson, Niklas, Muttarak Raya and Mi Ah Schoyen. 2018. Dividing the pie in the eco-social state: Exploring the relationship between public support for environmental and welfare policies. Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 36, 313-339.
Kallis, Giorgos. 2015. In defense of degrowth. Edited by Aaron Vansintjan, Available in https://indefenseofdegrowth.com/
Koch, Max and Martin Fritz. 2014. Building the Eco-social State: do welfare regimes matter? Journal of Social Policy, 43, 679-703.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1893. On the Teaching of Physiography. The Geographical Journal, 2, 4, 350-359.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1901. Field, factories and workshops. New York: G. P. Putnam’s sons.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1902. Mutual aid: a factor of evolution. London: Heinemann.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1912. Modern science and anarchism. London: Freedom Press.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1969. The state: its historic role. London: Freedom Press.
Machin, Amanda. 2020. Democracy, disagreement, disruption: agonism and the environmental state. Environmental Politics, 29, 1, 155-172.
Mac Laughlin, Jim. 2017. Kropotkin y la tradición intelectual anarquista. Barcelona: Planeta.
Marshall, Peter. 1992. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: HarperCollins.
Marshall, Peter. 2001. Liberation Ecology. Resurgence 205
Martínez-Alier, Joan and Mariana Walter. 2016. Social Metabolism and Conflicts over Extractivism. In, Fábio de Castro, Barbara Hogenboom, and Michiel Baud (eds.), Environmental Governance in Latin America. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 58-85.
Maximoff, Gregori P. 1953. The political philosophy of Bakunin. New York: The Free Press.
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Melo-Escrihuela, Carme. 2008. Promoting Ecological Citizenship: Rights, Duties and Political Agency. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographers, 7, 113-34.
Mol, Arthur P. J. 2016. The environmental nation state in decline. Environmental Politics, 25, 48-68.
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Purchase, Graham. 1997. Anarchism and Ecology. Montreal: Black Rose Books.
Reclus, Élisée. 1866. Du sentiment de la nature dans les sociétés modernes. La Revue des Deux Mondes, 63, 352-381.
Reclus, Élisée. 1881. The History of a Mountain. Translated by Bertha Ness and John Lillie. New York: Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square.
Reclus, Élisée. 1896. La grande famille. Le Magazine International, January.
Reclus, Élisée. 1905-08. L’Homme et la Terre, 6 vol. Paris: Librairie Universelle.
Sale, Kirkpatrick. 2000. Dwellers in the land: the bioregional vision. London: University of Georgia Press.
Saward, Michael. 1998. Green state/democratic state. Contemporary Politics, 4, 345-356.
Skocpol, Theda. 1979. States and social revolutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Smith, Mick. 2007. Wild-life: Anarchy, Ecology, and Ethics. Environmental Politics, 16, 470-487.
Snyder, Gary. 1980. The Real Work: Interviews and Talks 1964-1979. New York: New Direction Books.
Spaargaren, Gert and Arthur P. J. Mol. 2008. Greening global consumption: redefining politics and authority. Global Environmental Change, 18, 3, 350-359.
Todes, Daniel. 1989. Darwin without Malthus: The struggle for existence – in Russian evolutionary thought. New York: Oxford University Press.
Toro, Francisco. 2016. Educating for Earth consciousness: Ecopedagogy within early anarchist Geography. In Springer, Simon, Marcelo Lopes de Souza, and Richard J. White (eds.), The radicalization of pedagogy. Anarchism, Geography and the spirit of revolt. London: Rowman & Littlefield, 193-221.
Toro, Francisco. 2018. The thought of Élisée Reclus as a source of inspiration for degrowth ethos. In, Ferretti, Federico, Gerónimo Barrera de la Torre, Anthony Ince and Francisco Toro (eds.), Historical Geographies of Anarchism. Early Critical Geographers and Present-Day Scientific Challenges. New York: Routledge, 89-112.
Trainer, Ted. 2017. La vía de la simplicidad. Hacia un mundo sostenible y justo. Madrid: Trotta.
Ward, Colin. 1996. Anarchy in Action. London: Freedom Press.
Wilson, Harlan. 2006. Environmental democracy and the Green state. Environmental Democracy, 38, 276-294.
Wolford, Wendy, Saturnino M. Borras, Ruth Hall, Ian Scoones and Ben White. 2013. Governing Global Land Deals: The Role of the State in the Rush for Land. Development and Change, 44, 2, 189–210.
Asara, Viviana, Iago Otero, Federico Demaria, and Esteve Corbera. 2015. Socially sustainable degrowth as a social-ecological transformation: repoliticizing sustainability. Sustainability Sciencie, 19, 3, 375-384.
Barrera-Bassols, Nicolás, and Gerónimo Barrera de la Torre. 2018. On ‘Other’ geographies and anarchisms. In, Ferretti, Federico, Gerónimo Barrera de la Torre, Anthony Ince and Francisco Toro (eds.), Historical Geographies of Anarchism. Early Critical Geographers and Present-Day Scientific Challenges. New York: Routledge, 195-208.
Barry, John. 1996. Green Political Theory: Nature, Virtue and Progress. PhD thesis. Department of Politics: University of Glasgow.
Beecher, Jonathan and Richard Bienvenu. 1972. The Utopian Vision of Charles Fourier. Boston: Beacon.
Best, Steven. 2009. Rethinking revolution: total liberation, alliance politics and a prolegomena to resistance movements in the twenty first century. In, Randell Aster et al. (eds.), Contemporary anarchist studies: an introductory anthology of anarchy in the academy. New York: Routledge, pp. 189-202.
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Black, Bob. 2004. Theses on anarchism after post-modernism. Green Anarchy, 16, 6-7.
Bookchin, Murray. 1974. Toward an Ecological Society. Philosophica, 13, 73-85.
Bookchin, Murray. 1982. The Ecology of Freedom. Palo Alto, CA: Cheshire Books.
Bookchin, Murray. 1986. Post-scarcity Anarchism (with a new introduction). Montreal-Buffalo: Black Rose Books.
Bookchin, Murray. 1989. The Meaning of Confederalism. Green Perspectives, 20. Available at: https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/murray-bookchin-the-meaning-of-confederalism (accessed 09 December 2019).
Borras, Saturnino M., Jennifer C. Franco, Sergio Gómez, Cristóbal Kay, and Max Spoor. 2012. Land grabbing in Latin America and the Caribbean. Journal of Peasant Studies, 39, 3–4, 845–872.
Bull, Hedley. 1979. The state’s positive role in world affairs. Daedalus, 108, 111-123.
Conca, Ken. 2005. Old states in new bottles? The hybridization of authority in global environmental governance. In, Barry, John and Robyn Eckersley (eds.), The state and the global ecological crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT, pp. 181-205.
Constantino, Agostina. 2016. El capital extranjero y el acaparamiento de tierras conflictos sociales y acumulación por desposesión en Argentina. Revista de estudios sociales, 55, 137-149.
Craig, Martin P. A. 2020. Greening the State for a sustainable political economy. New Political Economy, 25, 1-4, https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2018.1526266
Davidson, Stewart. 2009. Ecoanarchism: a critical defence. Journal of Political Ideologies, 14, 47-67.
Demaria, Federico, François Schneider, Filka Sekulova, and Joan Martínez-Alier, J. 2013. What is Degrowth? From an Activist Slogan to a Social Movement. Environmental Values, 22, 191-215.
Dryzek, John S. 1992. Ecology and discursive democracy: Beyond liberal capitalism and the administrative state. Capitalism, Nature, Socialism, 3, 18-42.
Dryzek, John S., David Downes, Christian Hunold and David Schlosberg with Hans-Kristian Hernes. 2003. Green States and Social Movements: Environmentalism in the U.S., U.K., Germany, and Norway. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Duit, Andreas. 2011. Adaptative capacity and the ecostate. In, Boyd, Emily and Carl Folke (eds.), Adapting Institutions. Governance, Complexity and Social-Ecological Resilience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 127-147.
Duit, Andreas, Peter H. Feindt, and James Meadowcroft. 2016. Greening Leviathan: the rise of the environmental state? Environmental Politics, 25, 1-23.
Eckersley, Robyn. 2004. The Green State: Rethinking Democracy, and Sovereignity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ferretti, Federico, and Philippe Pelletier. 2019. En los orígenes de la geografía crítica. Espacialidades y relaciones de dominio en la obra de los geógrafos anarquistas Reclus, Kropotkin y Mechnikov. In Lobo, Patricia (coord.) Ser territorio. La geografía y el anarquismo. Madrid: La Neurosis o Las Barricadas Ed., 43-73.
Goodin, Robert. 1992. Green Political Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Goodwin, Adam. 2010. Evolution and Anarchism in International Relations: The Challenge of Kropotkin’s Biological Ontology. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 39, 417-437.
Gorsline, Jeremiah and Freeman House. 1990. Future primitive. In, Andruss, Van, Christopher Plant, Judith Plant and Eleanor Wright (eds.), Home! A Bioregional Reader. Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers, 39-41.
Gough, Ian. 2016. Welfare states and environmental states: a comparative analysis. Environmental Politics, 25, 24-47.
Grajales, Jacobo. 2013. State Involvement, Land Grabbing and Counter-Insurgency in Colombia. Development and Change, 44, 2, 211–232.
Hall, Matthew. 2011. Beyond the Human: Extending Ecological Anarchism. Environmental Politics, 20, 374-390.
Hatzisavvidou, Sophia. 2019. Inventing the environmental state: neoliberal common sense and the limits to transformation. Environmental Politics, https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2019.1684732.
Hausknost, Daniel. 2020. The environmental state and the glass ceiling of transformation. Environmental Politics, 29, 1, 17-37.
Heckert, Jamie. 2010. Anarchist roots & routes. European Journal of Ecopsychology, 1, 19-36.
Huh, Taewook, Yunyoung Kim and Jiyoung Hailiey Kim. 2018. Towards a Green state: a comparative study on OECD countries through fuzzy-set analysis. Sustainability, 10, 3181, https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093181.
Ince, Anthony and Gerónimo Barrera de la Torre. 2016. For post-statist geographies. Political Geography, 55, 10-19.
Jakobsson, Niklas, Muttarak Raya and Mi Ah Schoyen. 2018. Dividing the pie in the eco-social state: Exploring the relationship between public support for environmental and welfare policies. Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 36, 313-339.
Kallis, Giorgos. 2015. In defense of degrowth. Edited by Aaron Vansintjan, Available in https://indefenseofdegrowth.com/
Koch, Max and Martin Fritz. 2014. Building the Eco-social State: do welfare regimes matter? Journal of Social Policy, 43, 679-703.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1893. On the Teaching of Physiography. The Geographical Journal, 2, 4, 350-359.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1901. Field, factories and workshops. New York: G. P. Putnam’s sons.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1902. Mutual aid: a factor of evolution. London: Heinemann.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1912. Modern science and anarchism. London: Freedom Press.
Kropotkin, Peter. 1969. The state: its historic role. London: Freedom Press.
Machin, Amanda. 2020. Democracy, disagreement, disruption: agonism and the environmental state. Environmental Politics, 29, 1, 155-172.
Mac Laughlin, Jim. 2017. Kropotkin y la tradición intelectual anarquista. Barcelona: Planeta.
Marshall, Peter. 1992. Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: HarperCollins.
Marshall, Peter. 2001. Liberation Ecology. Resurgence 205
Martínez-Alier, Joan and Mariana Walter. 2016. Social Metabolism and Conflicts over Extractivism. In, Fábio de Castro, Barbara Hogenboom, and Michiel Baud (eds.), Environmental Governance in Latin America. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, pp. 58-85.
Maximoff, Gregori P. 1953. The political philosophy of Bakunin. New York: The Free Press.
McNeill, John R. 2000. Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-century World. New York: Norton.
Meadowcroft, James. 2012. Greening the State. In, Steinberg, Paul and Stacey VanDeever (eds.), Comparative environmental politics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 63-88.
Melo-Escrihuela, Carme. 2008. Promoting Ecological Citizenship: Rights, Duties and Political Agency. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographers, 7, 113-34.
Mol, Arthur P. J. 2016. The environmental nation state in decline. Environmental Politics, 25, 48-68.
Morris, Brian. 1996. Ecology and anarchism. Malvern: Images Publishing.
Mumford, Lewis. 1961. The city in history. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World
Mumford, Lewis. 1967. The Myth of the Machine (Vol. I). Technics and Human Development. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Mumford, Lewis. 1970. The Myth of the Machine (Vol. II). The Pentagon of Power. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Næss, Arne. 1989. Ecology, Community, and Lifestyle: Outline of an Ecosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Price, Andy. 2019. Green anarchism. In, Levy, Carl, and Matthew S. Adams (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism, (online) Palgrave, 281-291.
Purchase, Graham. 1997. Anarchism and Ecology. Montreal: Black Rose Books.
Reclus, Élisée. 1866. Du sentiment de la nature dans les sociétés modernes. La Revue des Deux Mondes, 63, 352-381.
Reclus, Élisée. 1881. The History of a Mountain. Translated by Bertha Ness and John Lillie. New York: Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square.
Reclus, Élisée. 1896. La grande famille. Le Magazine International, January.
Reclus, Élisée. 1905-08. L’Homme et la Terre, 6 vol. Paris: Librairie Universelle.
Sale, Kirkpatrick. 2000. Dwellers in the land: the bioregional vision. London: University of Georgia Press.
Saward, Michael. 1998. Green state/democratic state. Contemporary Politics, 4, 345-356.
Skocpol, Theda. 1979. States and social revolutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
Smith, Mick. 2007. Wild-life: Anarchy, Ecology, and Ethics. Environmental Politics, 16, 470-487.
Snyder, Gary. 1980. The Real Work: Interviews and Talks 1964-1979. New York: New Direction Books.
Spaargaren, Gert and Arthur P. J. Mol. 2008. Greening global consumption: redefining politics and authority. Global Environmental Change, 18, 3, 350-359.
Todes, Daniel. 1989. Darwin without Malthus: The struggle for existence – in Russian evolutionary thought. New York: Oxford University Press.
Toro, Francisco. 2016. Educating for Earth consciousness: Ecopedagogy within early anarchist Geography. In Springer, Simon, Marcelo Lopes de Souza, and Richard J. White (eds.), The radicalization of pedagogy. Anarchism, Geography and the spirit of revolt. London: Rowman & Littlefield, 193-221.
Toro, Francisco. 2018. The thought of Élisée Reclus as a source of inspiration for degrowth ethos. In, Ferretti, Federico, Gerónimo Barrera de la Torre, Anthony Ince and Francisco Toro (eds.), Historical Geographies of Anarchism. Early Critical Geographers and Present-Day Scientific Challenges. New York: Routledge, 89-112.
Trainer, Ted. 2017. La vía de la simplicidad. Hacia un mundo sostenible y justo. Madrid: Trotta.
Ward, Colin. 1996. Anarchy in Action. London: Freedom Press.
Wilson, Harlan. 2006. Environmental democracy and the Green state. Environmental Democracy, 38, 276-294.
Wolford, Wendy, Saturnino M. Borras, Ruth Hall, Ian Scoones and Ben White. 2013. Governing Global Land Deals: The Role of the State in the Rush for Land. Development and Change, 44, 2, 189–210.
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Published
2021-03-13
How to Cite
Toro, F. J. (2021). Stateless Environmentalism: The Criticism of State by Eco-Anarchist Perspectives. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies, 20(2), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.14288/acme.v20i2.1950
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Special Issue - Anarchist Geographies and Epistemologies of the State
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