Theorizing the City
Racialized Minority Youth in India's Global Cities
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14288/acme.v20i4.1892Keywords:
Migration, planetary urbanization, education, urban Global South, South Asia, LadakhAbstract
As linguistic, religious, and racialized minorities, Himalayan youth are one among many marginalized others migrating to Indian cities in pursuit of higher education. This article draws on research with college students from Ladakh in the Northwest Himalaya, formerly a district of the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir, designated its own Union Territory (autonomous jurisdiction) in 2019. Our research asks, how do Ladakhi youth look towards the future as outsiders and aliens in the urban Global South? In what ways are they architects building the city anew, creating their own cultural subtext to the city? We work to understand how Ladakhi youth use the city as a vector in their own life trajectory. We argue that young people are constantly theorizing the city from the perspective of marginalized others within the margins of the Global South. They theorize the city in four ways, as a site of: a) working through questions of difference, b) “exposure,” c) personal growth, and d) as a lens to consider the future of their hometowns. We propose, that through their critiques and desires, students reject the temporal assumptions of ‘planetary urbanization’ that an urban future awaits their mountainous hometowns.
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Hussain, Shafqat. 2015. Remoteness and modernity: Transformation and continuity in northern Pakistan. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Jazeel, Tariq. 2018. Urban theory with an outside. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space. 36(3), 405-419.
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Jeffrey, Craig, and Jane Dyson. 2014. Social Politics: youth vernacular action in the Indian Himalayas. In Taberez Ahmed Neyazi, Akio Tanabe, & Shinya Ishizaka (eds.), Democratic transformation and the vernacular public arena in India. New York: Routledge, pp. 45–58.
Jeffrey, Craig, and Stephen Young. 2014. Jugād: Youth and enterprise in India. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 104(1), 182–95.
Karlsson, Bengt G, and Dolly Kikon. 2017. Wayfinding: Indigenous migrants in the service sector of metropolitan India. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 40(3), 447–62.
Katz, Cindi. 2017. Revisiting minor theory. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 35(4), 596–99.
Khan Suan, H Kham. 2011. Rethinking ‘tribe’identities: The politics of recognition among the Zo in north-east India. Contributions to Indian Sociology 45(2), 157–87.
Kikon, Dolly, and Bengt G. Karlsson. 2019. Leaving the Land: Indigenous Migration and Affective Labour in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krishna, Sankaran. 1994. Cartographic Anxiety: Mapping the body politic in India. Alternatives: Social Transformation and Humane Governance 19, 507–21.
Krishnan, Sneha. 2018. Doing Nothing: Gender, Respectability and Playing with Time. Voices 13(1), 62–73.
Kundu, Amitabh. 2017. Urbanisation versus rurbanisation in India: The need for an alternate development paradigm. Indian International Centre Quarterly Winter 2016–Spring 2017, 17–27.
Lefebvre, Henri. 2003. The Urban Revolution. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Lowe, Lisa. 2015. The intimacies of four continents. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Lukose, Ritty A. 2009. Liberalization’s Children: Gender, Youth, and Consumer Citizenship in Globalizing India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Mains, Daniel. 2007. Neoliberal times: Progress, boredom, and shame among young men in urban Ethiopia. American Ethnologist 34(4), 659–73.
Massey, Doreen. 2005. For space. London: Sage.
McDuie-Ra, Duncan. 2012. Cosmopolitan Tribals: Frontier Migrants In Delhi. South Asia Research 32(1), 39–55.
------. 2013. Beyond the ‘Exclusionary City’: North-east Migrants in Neo-liberal Delhi. Urban Studies 50(8), 1625–40.
------. 2015. ‘Is India Racist?’: Murder, Migration and Mary Kom. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 38(2), 304–19.
Merrifield, Andy. 2013. The urban question under planetary urbanization. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 37(3), 909–22.
Negi, Rohit, Kesang Thakur, and Syed Shoaib Ali. 2016. Contoured Urbanism: People, Property and Infrastructures in the Indian Himalayas. Urbanisation 1(2), 134–48.
Oswin, Natalie. 2018. Planetary urbanization: A view from outside. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 36(3), 540–46.
Patel, Sujata. 2018. Rethinking urban studies today. Sociological Bulletin 67(1), 1–19.
Phadke, Shilpa, Sameera Khan, and Shilpa Ranade. 2011. Why Loiter?: Women and Risk on Mumbai Streets. Penguin Books India.
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------. 2016. What is urban about critical urban theory? Urban Geography 37(6), 810–23.
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Samuels, Fiona. 2001. We Kaonde we don’t migrate: the stretching of contemporary Kaonde life-worlds between rural and urban. PhD Dissertation. University of Sussex.
Secor, Anna. 2007. Between longing and despair: state, space and subjectivity in Turkey. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 25, 33–52.
Simone, AbdouMaliq. 2004. People as infrastructure: intersecting fragments in Johannesburg. Public Culture 16(3), 407–29.
------. 2009. City Life from Jakarta to Dakar: Movements at the Crossroads. London: Routledge.
Simone, AbdouMaliq, and Edgar Pieterse. 2017. New Urban Worlds: Inhabiting Dissonant Times. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Smith, Sara. 2013. ‘In the heart, there’s nothing’: unruly youth, generational vertigo and territory. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 38(4), 572-585.
------. 2017. Politics, pleasure, and difference in the intimate city: Himalayan students remake the future. cultural geographies 24(4), 573–88.
------. 2020. Intimate Geopolitics: Love, Territory, and the Future on India’s Northern Threshold. Princeton, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Smith, Sara, and Mabel Denzin Gergan. 2015. The diaspora within: Himalayan youth, education-driven migration, and future aspirations in India. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 33(1), 119–35.
Stephens, Nicole M, Stephanie A Fryberg, Hazel Rose Markus, Camille S Johnson, and Rebecca Covarrubias. 2012. Unseen disadvantage: how American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of personality and social psychology 102(6), 1178.
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Tuck, Eve. 2009. Suspending damage: A letter to communities. Harvard Educational Review 79(3), 409–28.
Wachsmuth, David. 2012. Three ecologies: urban metabolism and the society-nature opposition. The Sociological Quarterly 53(4), 506–23.
Walton, Gregory M, and Geoffrey L Cohen. 2011. A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science 331(6023), 1447–51.
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Wouters, Jelle JP, and Tanka B Subba. 2013. The “Indian Face,” India’s Northeast, and “the idea of India”. Asian Anthropology 12(2), 126–40.
Ziipao, Raile Rocky. 2018. Look/Act East Policy, Roads and Market Infrastructure in North-East India. Strategic Analysis 42(5), 476–89.
Aggarwal, Ravina, and Mona Bhan. 2009. “Disarming violence”: Development, democracy, and security on the borders of India. The Journal of Asian Studies 68, 519–42.
Anand, Nikhil. 2011. Pressure: The PoliTechnics of water supply in Mumbai. Cultural Anthropology 26(4), 542–64.
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------. 2013. The Mongolian Fringe. Himal Southasian 26(1), 82–86.
------. 2020. In the name of the nation: India and its northeast. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
Baum, Sandy, and Stella M Flores. 2011. Higher education and children in immigrant families. The future of children 21(1), 171–93.
van Beek, Martijn. 2000. Beyond Identity Fetishism: “Communal” Conflict in Ladakh and the Limits of Autonomy. Cultural Anthropology 15, 525–69.
Berlant, Lauren. 2011. Cruel optimism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Bhattacharyya, Gargi, John Gabriel, and Stephen Small. 2002. Race and Power: Global racism in the twenty-first century. Abingdon: Psychology Press.
Bhaumik, Subir. 2009. Troubled periphery: crisis of India’s North East. New Delhi: Sage.
Bora, Papori. 2019. The Problem Without a Name: Comments on Cultural Difference (Racism) in India. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 1–16.
Brenner, Neil, and C Schmid. 2014. Planetary urbanization, Implosions / Explosions: Towards a Study of Planetary Urbanization. Berlin: Jovis, pp. 160–65.
Brown, Trent. 2015. Youth Mobilities and Rural–Urban Tensions in Darjeeling, India. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 38(2), 263–75.
Buckley, Michelle, and Kendra Strauss. 2016. With, against, and beyond Lefebvre: Planetary urbanization and epistemic plurality. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 34(4), 617–36.
Cheng, Yi’En. 2014. Time protagonists: student migrants, practices of time and cultural construction of the Singapore-educated person. Social & Cultural Geography 15(4), 385–405.
Cole, Jennifer, and Deborah Durham. 2008. Introduction: Globalization and the temporality of children and youth. In Jennifer Cole & Deborah Durham (eds.), Figuring the future: globalization and the temporalities of children and youth. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, pp. 3–24.
Collins, Francis L. 2018. Desire as a theory for migration studies: temporality, assemblage and becoming in the narratives of migrants. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 44(6), 964–80.
Cons, Jason, and Michael Eilenberg. 2019. Frontier Assemblages: The Emergent Politics of Resource Frontiers in Asia. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Das, Purba. 2013. Casteless, Raceless India: Constitutive Discourses of National Integration. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication 6(3), 221–40.
Datta, Ayona. 2016. The intimate city: violence, gender and ordinary life in Delhi slums. Urban Geography 37, 343–342.
Deka, Kaustubh. 2019. Youth and infrastructure development in Northeast India. Heinrich Böll Stiftung India.
Demenge, Jonathan. 2015. Development Theory, Regional Politics and the Unfolding of the ‘Roadscape’ in Ladakh, North India. Journal of Infrastructure Development 7(1), 1–18.
Derickson, Kate Driscoll. 2017. Masters of the universe. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 36(3), 556–62.
Doshi, Sapana. 2013. The politics of the evicted: Redevelopment, subjectivity, and difference in Mumbai’s slum frontier. Antipode 45(4), 844–65.
Dyson, Jane. 2008. Harvesting Identities: Youth, Work, and Gender in the Indian Himalayas. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 98(1), 160–79.
Dyson, Jane, and Craig Jeffrey. 2018. Everyday prefiguration: Youth social action in north India. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 43(4), 573–85.
Ferguson, James. 2006. Global shadows: Africa in the neoliberal world order. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Gergan, Mabel. 2021. Tribal Territoriality, Asymmetric Federalism, and Majoritarianism in India’s Northern Himalayan Borderlands. Society for Cultural Anthropology Editors’ Forum: Hot Spots, Majoritarian Politics in South Asia, March. https://culanth.org/fieldsights/tribal-territoriality-asymmetric-federalism-and-majoritarianism-in-indias-northern-himalayan-borderlands.
Gergan, Mabel Denzin. 2014. Precarity and Possibility: On Being Young and Indigenous in Sikkim, India. Himalaya 34(2), 67–80.
Gergan, Mabel, and Sara Smith. 2020. ‘The path you will choose won’t be a fairy tale’: urban prefiguration and mountain Nostalgia in India’s Northwest Himalayas. Space and Polity 24(1), 77–92.
Goldberg, David Theo. 2008. The threat of race: Reflections on racial neoliberalism. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Hage, Ghassan. 2017. Diaspora and migration. A companion to critical and cultural theory. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell, 191–204.
Harms, Erik, Shafqat Hussain, Sasha Newell, Charles Piot, Louisa Schein, Sara Shneiderman, Terence Turner, Juan Zhang, Erik Harms, and Shafqat Hussain. 2014. Remote and edgy: New takes on old anthropological themes. HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory 4(1), 361–81.
Harris, Tina. 2013. Trading places: new economic geographies across Himalayan borderlands. Political Geography 35, 60–68.
hooks, bell. 1984. Feminist Theory: from Margin to Center. Boston: South End Press.
Hussain, Shafqat. 2015. Remoteness and modernity: Transformation and continuity in northern Pakistan. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Jazeel, Tariq. 2018. Urban theory with an outside. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space. 36(3), 405-419.
Jeffrey, Craig. 2010. Timepass: Youth, class, and the politics of waiting in India. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Jeffrey, Craig, and Jane Dyson. 2014. Social Politics: youth vernacular action in the Indian Himalayas. In Taberez Ahmed Neyazi, Akio Tanabe, & Shinya Ishizaka (eds.), Democratic transformation and the vernacular public arena in India. New York: Routledge, pp. 45–58.
Jeffrey, Craig, and Stephen Young. 2014. Jugād: Youth and enterprise in India. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 104(1), 182–95.
Karlsson, Bengt G, and Dolly Kikon. 2017. Wayfinding: Indigenous migrants in the service sector of metropolitan India. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 40(3), 447–62.
Katz, Cindi. 2017. Revisiting minor theory. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 35(4), 596–99.
Khan Suan, H Kham. 2011. Rethinking ‘tribe’identities: The politics of recognition among the Zo in north-east India. Contributions to Indian Sociology 45(2), 157–87.
Kikon, Dolly, and Bengt G. Karlsson. 2019. Leaving the Land: Indigenous Migration and Affective Labour in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krishna, Sankaran. 1994. Cartographic Anxiety: Mapping the body politic in India. Alternatives: Social Transformation and Humane Governance 19, 507–21.
Krishnan, Sneha. 2018. Doing Nothing: Gender, Respectability and Playing with Time. Voices 13(1), 62–73.
Kundu, Amitabh. 2017. Urbanisation versus rurbanisation in India: The need for an alternate development paradigm. Indian International Centre Quarterly Winter 2016–Spring 2017, 17–27.
Lefebvre, Henri. 2003. The Urban Revolution. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Lowe, Lisa. 2015. The intimacies of four continents. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Lukose, Ritty A. 2009. Liberalization’s Children: Gender, Youth, and Consumer Citizenship in Globalizing India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Mains, Daniel. 2007. Neoliberal times: Progress, boredom, and shame among young men in urban Ethiopia. American Ethnologist 34(4), 659–73.
Massey, Doreen. 2005. For space. London: Sage.
McDuie-Ra, Duncan. 2012. Cosmopolitan Tribals: Frontier Migrants In Delhi. South Asia Research 32(1), 39–55.
------. 2013. Beyond the ‘Exclusionary City’: North-east Migrants in Neo-liberal Delhi. Urban Studies 50(8), 1625–40.
------. 2015. ‘Is India Racist?’: Murder, Migration and Mary Kom. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 38(2), 304–19.
Merrifield, Andy. 2013. The urban question under planetary urbanization. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 37(3), 909–22.
Negi, Rohit, Kesang Thakur, and Syed Shoaib Ali. 2016. Contoured Urbanism: People, Property and Infrastructures in the Indian Himalayas. Urbanisation 1(2), 134–48.
Oswin, Natalie. 2018. Planetary urbanization: A view from outside. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 36(3), 540–46.
Patel, Sujata. 2018. Rethinking urban studies today. Sociological Bulletin 67(1), 1–19.
Phadke, Shilpa, Sameera Khan, and Shilpa Ranade. 2011. Why Loiter?: Women and Risk on Mumbai Streets. Penguin Books India.
Rai, Rohini. Forthcoming. From Colonial ‘Mongoloid’to Neoliberal ‘Northeastern’: Theorising ‘Race’, Racialization and Racism in Contemporary India. Asian Ethnicity, 1–21.
Rieker, Martina, and Linda Peake. 2013. Rethinking feminist interventions into the urban, Rethinking Feminist Interventions into the Urban. Routledge, pp. 15–36.
Roy, Ananya. 2011. Slumdog cities: rethinking subaltern urbanism. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 35(2), 223–38.
------. 2016. What is urban about critical urban theory? Urban Geography 37(6), 810–23.
Ruddick, S. 2003. The politics of aging: globalization and the restructuring of youth and childhood. Antipode 35, 335–64.
Ruddick, Sue, Linda Peake, Gökbörü Tanyildiz, and Darren Patrick. 2018. Planetary urbanization: An urban theory for our time? Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 36(3), 387–404.
Samuels, Fiona. 2001. We Kaonde we don’t migrate: the stretching of contemporary Kaonde life-worlds between rural and urban. PhD Dissertation. University of Sussex.
Secor, Anna. 2007. Between longing and despair: state, space and subjectivity in Turkey. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 25, 33–52.
Simone, AbdouMaliq. 2004. People as infrastructure: intersecting fragments in Johannesburg. Public Culture 16(3), 407–29.
------. 2009. City Life from Jakarta to Dakar: Movements at the Crossroads. London: Routledge.
Simone, AbdouMaliq, and Edgar Pieterse. 2017. New Urban Worlds: Inhabiting Dissonant Times. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Smith, Sara. 2013. ‘In the heart, there’s nothing’: unruly youth, generational vertigo and territory. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 38(4), 572-585.
------. 2017. Politics, pleasure, and difference in the intimate city: Himalayan students remake the future. cultural geographies 24(4), 573–88.
------. 2020. Intimate Geopolitics: Love, Territory, and the Future on India’s Northern Threshold. Princeton, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Smith, Sara, and Mabel Denzin Gergan. 2015. The diaspora within: Himalayan youth, education-driven migration, and future aspirations in India. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 33(1), 119–35.
Stephens, Nicole M, Stephanie A Fryberg, Hazel Rose Markus, Camille S Johnson, and Rebecca Covarrubias. 2012. Unseen disadvantage: how American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of personality and social psychology 102(6), 1178.
Subba, Tanka B, and N Malla. 1998. Regionalism in North East India: An Appraisal. Nationalism, Regionalism, and Philosophy of National Integration, edited by N. Malla, 78–85. New Delhi: Regency Publications.
Tadiar, Neferti XM. 2016. City everywhere. Theory, Culture & Society 33(7–8), 57–83.
Tuck, Eve. 2009. Suspending damage: A letter to communities. Harvard Educational Review 79(3), 409–28.
Wachsmuth, David. 2012. Three ecologies: urban metabolism and the society-nature opposition. The Sociological Quarterly 53(4), 506–23.
Walton, Gregory M, and Geoffrey L Cohen. 2011. A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science 331(6023), 1447–51.
Winant, Howard. 2006. Race and racism: Towards a global future. Ethnic and Racial Studies 29(5), 986–1003.
Wouters, Jelle JP, and Tanka B Subba. 2013. The “Indian Face,” India’s Northeast, and “the idea of India”. Asian Anthropology 12(2), 126–40.
Ziipao, Raile Rocky. 2018. Look/Act East Policy, Roads and Market Infrastructure in North-East India. Strategic Analysis 42(5), 476–89.
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Published
2021-08-02
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Gergan, M. D., & Smith, S. (2021). Theorizing the City: Racialized Minority Youth in India’s Global Cities. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies, 20(4), 387–408. https://doi.org/10.14288/acme.v20i4.1892
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Themed Section - From the Margins Within (Guest Ed. Aparna Parikh)
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