Second Generation Biometrics and the Future of Geosurveillance: A Minority Report on FAST
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14288/acme.v17i4.1622Keywords:
surveillance, privacy, future attribute screening technology, second generation biometrics, securityAbstract
Biometrics are technologies that measure the body and are typically seen as existing for the purposes of identity verification. However, they are rapidly moving towards a new paradigm of behavioural analysis and prediction. The Department of Homeland Security’s Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST) is one example of this shift. In this article, we use FAST to explore the implications of new biometric technologies for geosurveillance. We argue that second generation biometrics mark a major shift in the application of geosurveillance due to their spatial and topological nature, and that they are motivated in part by a desire to make bodies more legible. More importantly, we argue that second generation biometrics both intensify and extend geosurveillance of already marginalized bodies. Finally, we call for more geographical research into biometrics given their rapid development and oncoming proliferation.
References
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Amoore, L., & Hall, A. (2009). Taking People Apart: Digitised Dissection and the Body at the Border. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 27(3), 444–464. https://doi.org/10.1068/d1208
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Browne, S. (2015). Dark Matters: On the Surveillance of Blackness. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822375302
Castro, F. M., Marin-Jimenez, M. J., Guil, N., & de la Blanca, N. P. (2016). Automatic learning of gait signatures for people identification. ArXiv:1603.01006 [Cs]. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/abs/1603.01006
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Currah, P., & Mulqueen, T. (2011). Securitizing Gender: Identity, Biometrics, and Transgender Bodies at the Airport. Social Research, 78(2), 557–582. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/stable/23347190
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Hall, R. (2007). Of Ziploc Bags and Black Holes: The Aesthetics of Transparency in the War on Terror. The Communication Review, 10(4), 319–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714420701715381
Harvey, A. (2017). CV Dazzle: Camouflage from Face Detection. Retrieved May 28, 2018, from https://cvdazzle.com/
Hill, K. (2015). You’re Being Secretly Tracked With Facial Recognition, Even in Church. Retrieved November 24, 2016, from http://fusion.net/story/154199/facial-recognition-no-rules/
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Loftus, J. (2011). DHS Begins Testing Controversial Pre-Crime FAST System (On the Willing). Retrieved November 22, 2016, from http://gizmodo.com/5847937/dhs-begins-testing-controversial-pre-crime-fast-system-on-the-willing
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Magnet, S. (2011). When biometrics fail: gender, race, and the technology of identity. Durham: Duke University Press.
Magnet, S., & Rodgers, T. (2012). Stripping for the State. Feminist Media Studies, 12(1), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2011.558352
Markoff, J. (2002, November 9). Threats and Responses: Intelligence; Pentagon Plans a Computer System That Would Peek at Personal Data of Americans. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/09/us/threats-responses-intelligence-pentagon-plans-computer-system-that-would-peek.html
Martin, L. L. (2010). Bombs, bodies, and biopolitics: securitizing the subject at the airport security checkpoint. Social & Cultural Geography, 11(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649360903414585
Milgrom-Levin, T., Teufel, H., Cohen, J., Jensen, D., Landesberg, M., Cate, F. H., … Wright, R. Department of Homeland Security Meeting: "Implementing Privacy Protections in Government Data Mining (2008). Retrieved from https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/privacy/privacy_datamining_July24_2008_minutes.pdf
Mordini, E., & Ashton, H. (2012). The Transparent Body: Medical Information, Physical Privacy and Respect for Body Integrity. In E. Mordini & D. Tzovaras (Eds.), Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context (pp. 257–283). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3892-8_12
Mordini, E., Tzovaras, D., & Ashton, H. (2012). Introduction. In E. Mordini & D. Tzovaras (Eds.), Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context (pp. 1–19). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3892-8_1
Murray, H. (2007). Monstrous Play in Negative Spaces: Illegible Bodies and the Cultural Construction of Biometric Technology. The Communication Review, 10(4), 347–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714420701715415
Nguyen, N. (2015). Chokepoint: Regulating US student mobility through biometrics. Political Geography, 46, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.09.004
Nishiyama, H. (2015). Towards a Global Genealogy of Biopolitics: Race, Colonialism, and Biometrics beyond Europe. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 33(2), 331–346. https://doi.org/10.1068/d19912
O’Neil, C. (2016). Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. Retrieved August 28, 2017, from https://www.amazon.com/Weapons-Math-Destruction-Increases-Inequality/dp/0553418815
Pero, R., & Smith, H. (2014). In the “Service” of Migrants: The Temporary Resident Biometrics Project and the Economization of Migrant Labor in Canada. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 104(2), 401–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2013.875804
Poster, M. (1996). Databases as Discourse, or Electronic Interpellations. In D. Lyon & E. Zureik (Eds.), Computers, Surveillance, and Privacy. Retrieved from http://readinglists.warwick.ac.uk/items/767FD110-73BD-3041-5332-F36BA62ACB3D.html
PublicIntelligence. (2012). Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST) Promotional Video. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48FuWeF4m7U
Pugliese, J. (2012). Biometrics: Bodies, Technologies, Biopolitics (Reprint edition). London: Routledge.
Pulliam-Moore, C. (2015). Download Music Festival Comes Under Fire for Scanning People’s Faces, Tracking Their Spending Habits. Retrieved November 24, 2016, from http://fusion.net/story/152495/download-music-festival-comes-under-fire-for-scanning-peoples-faces-tracking-their-spending-habits/
Sutrop, M., & Laas-Mikko, K. (2012). From Identity Verification to Behavior Prediction: Ethical Implications of Second Generation Biometrics. Review of Policy Research, 29(1), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2011.00536.x
Swanlund, D., & Schuurman, N. (2018). Resisting geosurveillance: A survey of tactics and strategies for spatial privacy. Progress in Human Geography, 0309132518772661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132518772661
University of Waterloo. (2015, October 16). What is Topology? Retrieved December 15, 2017, from https://uwaterloo.ca/pure-mathematics/about-pure-math/what-is-pure-math/what-is-topology
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2007). Future Attribute Screening Technology Mobile Module. Presented at the S&T Stakeholders Conference. Retrieved from https://info.publicintelligence.net/DHS-FAST.pdf
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2008). Privacy Impact Assessment for the Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST) Project. Retrieved from https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/privacy/privacy_pia_st_fast.pdf
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2014). Future Attribute Screening Technology. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from https://www.dhs.gov/publication/future-attribute-screening-technology
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Van Der Ploeg, I. (2012). Security in the Danger Zone: Normative Issues of Next Generation Biometrics. In E. Mordini & D. Tzovaras (Eds.), Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context (pp. 287–303). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3892-8_13
Vélez, A. (2012). Insecure Identities: The Approval of a Biometric ID Card in Mexico. Surveillance & Society, 10(1), 42–50. Retrieved from http://proxy.lib.sfu.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=i3h&AN=87532861&site=ehost-live
Weinberger, S. (2011). Terrorist “pre-crime” detector field tested in United States. Nature News. https://doi.org/10.1038/news.2011.323
Zetter, K. (2011). DHS Launches “Minority Report” Pre-Crime Detection Program. Retrieved November 23, 2017, from https://www.wired.com/2011/10/pre-crime-detection/
Zhang, M. (2015). Google Photos Tags Two African-Americans As Gorillas Through Facial Recognition Software. Retrieved August 15, 2017, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/mzhang/2015/07/01/google-photos-tags-two-african-americans-as-gorillas-through-facial-recognition-software/
Amir, M., & Kotef, H. (2017). In-secure identities: On the securitization of abnormality. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 0263775817744780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775817744780
Amoore, L. (2006). Biometric borders: Governing mobilities in the war on terror. Political Geography, 25(3), 336–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2006.02.001
Amoore, L. (2009). Algorithmic War: Everyday Geographies of the War on Terror. Antipode, 41(1), 49–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2008.00655.x
Amoore, L. (2014). Security and the incalculable. Security Dialogue, 45(5), 423–439. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010614539719
Amoore, L., & Hall, A. (2009). Taking People Apart: Digitised Dissection and the Body at the Border. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 27(3), 444–464. https://doi.org/10.1068/d1208
Amoore, L., Marmura, S., & Salter, M. B. B. (2008). Smart Borders and Mobilities: Spaces, Zones, Enclosures. Surveillance & Society, 5(2). Retrieved from https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/surveillance-and-society/article/view/3429
Angeles, B. C. E. in L. (2008, September 23). New airport screening “could read minds.” Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/3069960/New-airport-screening-could-read-minds.html
AutoEmotive. (n.d.). AutoEmotive. Retrieved November 24, 2016, from http://autoemotive.media.mit.edu/
Barrie, A. (2008, September 23). Homeland Security Detects Terrorist Threats by Reading Your Mind [Text.Article]. Retrieved November 23, 2016, from http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/09/23/homeland-security-detects-terrorist-threats-by-reading-your-mind.html
Bian, L. (2009). Spatial Data Models. In R. Kitchin & N. Thrift (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (pp. 337–344). Oxford: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00417-X
Bosch, T., & Canfield, D. (2012, April 18). Why Homeland Security’s Pre-Crime Prevention Technology Is a Terrible Idea. Slate. Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2012/04/18/future_attribute_screening_technology_homeland_security_s_minority_report_program_.html
Browne, S. (2015). Dark Matters: On the Surveillance of Blackness. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822375302
Castro, F. M., Marin-Jimenez, M. J., Guil, N., & de la Blanca, N. P. (2016). Automatic learning of gait signatures for people identification. ArXiv:1603.01006 [Cs]. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/abs/1603.01006
Conner-Simons, A. (2016). Detecting emotions with wireless signals. Retrieved November 24, 2016, from https://news.mit.edu/2016/detecting-emotions-with-wireless-signals-0920
Currah, P., & Mulqueen, T. (2011). Securitizing Gender: Identity, Biometrics, and Transgender Bodies at the Airport. Social Research, 78(2), 557–582. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/stable/23347190
Furnas, A. (2012, April 17). Homeland Security’s “Pre-Crime” Screening Will Never Work. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/04/homeland-securitys-pre-crime-screening-will-never-work/255971/
Ghilardi, G., & Keller, F. (2012). Epistemological Foundation of Biometrics. In E. Mordini & D. Tzovaras (Eds.), Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context (pp. 23–47). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3892-8_2
Häkli, J. (2007). Biometric identities. Progress in Human Geography, 31(2), 139–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132507075358
Hall, R. (2007). Of Ziploc Bags and Black Holes: The Aesthetics of Transparency in the War on Terror. The Communication Review, 10(4), 319–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714420701715381
Harvey, A. (2017). CV Dazzle: Camouflage from Face Detection. Retrieved May 28, 2018, from https://cvdazzle.com/
Hill, K. (2015). You’re Being Secretly Tracked With Facial Recognition, Even in Church. Retrieved November 24, 2016, from http://fusion.net/story/154199/facial-recognition-no-rules/
Horizon. (2016). CCTV software identifies people by their walk. Retrieved November 23, 2016, from http://horizon-magazine.eu/article/cctv-software-identifies-people-their-walk_en.html
Introna, L. D. (2015). Algorithms, Governance, and Governmentality: On Governing Academic Writing. Science, Technology & Human Values, 41(1), 0162243915587360-. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243915587360
Kravets, D. (2016, June 18). Smile, you’re in the FBI face-recognition database. Retrieved November 24, 2016, from http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2016/06/smile-youre-in-the-fbi-face-recognition-database/
Loftus, J. (2011). DHS Begins Testing Controversial Pre-Crime FAST System (On the Willing). Retrieved November 22, 2016, from http://gizmodo.com/5847937/dhs-begins-testing-controversial-pre-crime-fast-system-on-the-willing
Lyon, D. (2010). Surveillance, Power and Everyday Life. In P. Kalantzis-Cope & K. Gherab-Martín (Eds.), Emerging Digital Spaces in Contemporary Society (pp. 1–37). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230299047_18
Magdaleno, J. (2014, February 4). Is Facial Recognition Technology Racist? Retrieved November 12, 2017, from https://creators.vice.com/en_us/article/53wp3k/is-facial-recognition-technology-racist
Magnet, S. (2011). When biometrics fail: gender, race, and the technology of identity. Durham: Duke University Press.
Magnet, S., & Rodgers, T. (2012). Stripping for the State. Feminist Media Studies, 12(1), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2011.558352
Markoff, J. (2002, November 9). Threats and Responses: Intelligence; Pentagon Plans a Computer System That Would Peek at Personal Data of Americans. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/09/us/threats-responses-intelligence-pentagon-plans-computer-system-that-would-peek.html
Martin, L. L. (2010). Bombs, bodies, and biopolitics: securitizing the subject at the airport security checkpoint. Social & Cultural Geography, 11(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649360903414585
Milgrom-Levin, T., Teufel, H., Cohen, J., Jensen, D., Landesberg, M., Cate, F. H., … Wright, R. Department of Homeland Security Meeting: "Implementing Privacy Protections in Government Data Mining (2008). Retrieved from https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/privacy/privacy_datamining_July24_2008_minutes.pdf
Mordini, E., & Ashton, H. (2012). The Transparent Body: Medical Information, Physical Privacy and Respect for Body Integrity. In E. Mordini & D. Tzovaras (Eds.), Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context (pp. 257–283). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3892-8_12
Mordini, E., Tzovaras, D., & Ashton, H. (2012). Introduction. In E. Mordini & D. Tzovaras (Eds.), Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context (pp. 1–19). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3892-8_1
Murray, H. (2007). Monstrous Play in Negative Spaces: Illegible Bodies and the Cultural Construction of Biometric Technology. The Communication Review, 10(4), 347–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714420701715415
Nguyen, N. (2015). Chokepoint: Regulating US student mobility through biometrics. Political Geography, 46, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.09.004
Nishiyama, H. (2015). Towards a Global Genealogy of Biopolitics: Race, Colonialism, and Biometrics beyond Europe. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 33(2), 331–346. https://doi.org/10.1068/d19912
O’Neil, C. (2016). Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. Retrieved August 28, 2017, from https://www.amazon.com/Weapons-Math-Destruction-Increases-Inequality/dp/0553418815
Pero, R., & Smith, H. (2014). In the “Service” of Migrants: The Temporary Resident Biometrics Project and the Economization of Migrant Labor in Canada. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 104(2), 401–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/00045608.2013.875804
Poster, M. (1996). Databases as Discourse, or Electronic Interpellations. In D. Lyon & E. Zureik (Eds.), Computers, Surveillance, and Privacy. Retrieved from http://readinglists.warwick.ac.uk/items/767FD110-73BD-3041-5332-F36BA62ACB3D.html
PublicIntelligence. (2012). Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST) Promotional Video. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48FuWeF4m7U
Pugliese, J. (2012). Biometrics: Bodies, Technologies, Biopolitics (Reprint edition). London: Routledge.
Pulliam-Moore, C. (2015). Download Music Festival Comes Under Fire for Scanning People’s Faces, Tracking Their Spending Habits. Retrieved November 24, 2016, from http://fusion.net/story/152495/download-music-festival-comes-under-fire-for-scanning-peoples-faces-tracking-their-spending-habits/
Sutrop, M., & Laas-Mikko, K. (2012). From Identity Verification to Behavior Prediction: Ethical Implications of Second Generation Biometrics. Review of Policy Research, 29(1), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2011.00536.x
Swanlund, D., & Schuurman, N. (2018). Resisting geosurveillance: A survey of tactics and strategies for spatial privacy. Progress in Human Geography, 0309132518772661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132518772661
University of Waterloo. (2015, October 16). What is Topology? Retrieved December 15, 2017, from https://uwaterloo.ca/pure-mathematics/about-pure-math/what-is-pure-math/what-is-topology
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2007). Future Attribute Screening Technology Mobile Module. Presented at the S&T Stakeholders Conference. Retrieved from https://info.publicintelligence.net/DHS-FAST.pdf
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2008). Privacy Impact Assessment for the Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST) Project. Retrieved from https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/privacy/privacy_pia_st_fast.pdf
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2014). Future Attribute Screening Technology. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from https://www.dhs.gov/publication/future-attribute-screening-technology
U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2015). Electronic Privacy Information Center Freedom of Information Act Request Filed to the Department of Homeland Security. Retrieved from https://epic.org/foia/dhs/fast/14-10-14-DHS-FOIA-20150511-DHS-Production.pdf
Van Der Ploeg, I. (2012). Security in the Danger Zone: Normative Issues of Next Generation Biometrics. In E. Mordini & D. Tzovaras (Eds.), Second Generation Biometrics: The Ethical, Legal and Social Context (pp. 287–303). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3892-8_13
Vélez, A. (2012). Insecure Identities: The Approval of a Biometric ID Card in Mexico. Surveillance & Society, 10(1), 42–50. Retrieved from http://proxy.lib.sfu.ca/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=i3h&AN=87532861&site=ehost-live
Weinberger, S. (2011). Terrorist “pre-crime” detector field tested in United States. Nature News. https://doi.org/10.1038/news.2011.323
Zetter, K. (2011). DHS Launches “Minority Report” Pre-Crime Detection Program. Retrieved November 23, 2017, from https://www.wired.com/2011/10/pre-crime-detection/
Zhang, M. (2015). Google Photos Tags Two African-Americans As Gorillas Through Facial Recognition Software. Retrieved August 15, 2017, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/mzhang/2015/07/01/google-photos-tags-two-african-americans-as-gorillas-through-facial-recognition-software/
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2018-10-04
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Swanlund, D., & Schuurman, N. (2018). Second Generation Biometrics and the Future of Geosurveillance: A Minority Report on FAST. ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies, 17(4), 920–938. https://doi.org/10.14288/acme.v17i4.1622
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